1849-1871

1849-1871

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Key things to note during the time
 * The revolutionary upheavals that broke out across Europe in 1848. **
 * The common demands of revolutionaries, despite the lack of an international revolutionary movement. **
 * The achievement of some of the goals of revolutionaries, such as national unification and greater representation in constitutional governments. **
 * The end of the French republic and parliamentary government as radicalism was severely repressed. **
 * The role of nationalism in eastern European revolutionary upheaval, and the inability of eastern European governments to meet the challenges of nationalism. **
 * The victories of counterrevolution in France, Austria, and the German states. **
 * The new toughness of mind that emerged as a consequence of the revolutions of 1848. **
 * The early history and origins of Marxism. **
 * The strengths and weaknesses of Marxism **
 * The authoritarian regime of Napoleon III, which foreshadowed the dictators of the twentieth century rather than symbolizing a return to the past. **

mplete victory for Prussia; Prussi a gained Holstein and put an end to all Austrian involvement in German affairs, clearing a major obstacle to German unification.
 * // So you think you can fight? //** ** Get ready to **** RUMBLE **** with WAR! **
 * __ Crimean War __** - 1853-1856 ; ** war that pitted Russia against the alliance of Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia ** ; Russia wanted warm water ports on Black Sea and thus hoped to take advantage of weakening Ottoman Empire; France and Britain feared an upset to the balance of power in Europe; emerged as an absolute military defeat for Russia.
 * __ Seven Weeks' War __** - 1866 ; ** war between Prussia and Austria **, named for its very short duration; was a fabricated conflict over administration of Holstein; co
 * __ American Civil War __** - 1861-1865 ; ** conflict between the North and the Confederate South ** over states' rights, federalism, economic rights, and, to some extent, slavery. The Civil Warwas an example of the forcible unification of a union using realpolitik.

> > Economics 101 > ** Classical liberalism ** - The **economic and political philosophy that opposed state intervention in economic affairs, supported free trade, competition, and individual initiative** as the key to success; this philosophy was, above all, an atta > ck on privilege, on the aristocrats, on the Anglican Church; liberals believed that talent alone should dictate a man's advancement in the world; supported in England by William Gladstone. > ** Conservatism ** - A political and **economic philosophy that supported state intervention in the economy on behalf of the disadvanta** > **ged**; supported the maintenance of traditional institutions of privilege in the name of preservation of tradition and custom that worked in the past; supported in England by Benjamin Disraeli. > ** Serfdom ** - An institution in Russia and many eastern European states in which **peasants were legally tied to the land that they farmed** and could not leave that land without expressed permission from the baron or landowner; created an immobile peasantry and a form of slavery; ended with the Emancipation of 1861.
 * __ Franco-Prussian War __** - July-September 1870 ; ** conflict be **** tween France and Prussia ** over a fabricated insult allegedly made by the French ambassador to the Prussia king; Prussia defeated France and her own territory and took Alsace-Lorraine from France and laid siege to Paris until the country gave in; overthrew the government and set up a parliamentary system in Paris.
 * __ Sevastopol __** - 1854-1855 ; Russia's heavily fortified chief naval base in the Black Sea, lying on the Crimean peninsula; ** after just under one year of constant battle and being under siege by French and British, the Russian abandoned the fortress **, blowing up their fortifications and sinking their own ships; one example of the harsh battles of the campaign.



Ø **Alexander II ** - **Russian Tsar** 1855-1881; known as a **reformer for his Great Reforms program** that included changes in education, judicial matters, military readiness, and expression freedom; issued the **Emancipation edict of 1861** to free the serfs; but his record only shows him to be a half-hearted reformer, never really interested in compromising any element of his power; assa
 * Move over Washington! Get ready for these European politico’s! **

ssinated in 1881 by a radical because of his lackluster performance as a reformer. Ø **Otto von Bismarck ** - 1815-1898; German chancellor and **architect of German unification under the Prussian crown**; ruthlessly **used realpolitik** in his endeavors; instigate d **fabricated conflicts with Denmark, Austria, and France** to acquire the land he believed should be part of the German Empire. Ø **Camillo di Cavour ** - 1810-1861; Sardinian prime minister and **architect of Italian unification under Sardinia's crown**; skillfully used realpolitik and his understanding of internation al relati ons to enhance Sardinia's stature as a European power and use the French-Austrian conflict to his advantage. Ø **Benjamin Disraeli ** - 1804-1881; **leader of the Conservative Party**, dedicated to government intervention and the maintenance of traditional institutions of privilege for tradition and stability purposes; his government passed the **Factory Act of 1875**, setting a maximum of a fifty-six hour work-week; the **Public Health Act**, establishing a sanitary code; the Artisans Dwelling Act, defining minimum housing standards; and the **Trade Union Act**, permitting picketing and other peaceful labor tactics. Boom! Ø **Giuseppe Garibaldi ** - Italian patriot, democrat, and freedom fighter; once Italian unification seemed possible, after the defeat of Austria, he **led a legion of Italian fighters through th** **e Kingdom of Naples, liberated province after province to create a unified Italian state**; forced to relinquish his territory to Camillo di Cavour's Sardinian lands in the name of unification. Ø **<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">William Gladstone **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> - 1809-1898; **leader of the Liberal Party** in Great Britain, though he began his career as a Tory; main advocate of the **liberal approach to government**--no tariffs, free trade, no government intervention; his government abolished tariffs, cut defense spending, lowered taxes, kept budgets balanced, reformed the civil service into a merit-based promotion syste <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">m, and made elementary education available to and mandatory for everyone. Ø <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">(OK, here is an exception to the “European” part) ** Abraham Lincoln ** - American president, elected 1860; led Union during the **American Civil War** and dedicated himself to the reunification of the United States. Ø **<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Giuseppe Mazzini **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> - Italian patriot and democrat committed to the **unification of Italy** under a liberal democratic government; leader of the Young Italy organization, a group of mostly Italian youths and democrats who pledged to work toward a united democratic Italy.

Ø **<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Napoleon III **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> - 1808-1873; won in the presidential election in France in December 1848, but took dictatorial powers on December 2, 1851 and took the monarchical title; can be considered the **first modern politician due to his mastery of communication** and appearances to maintain the **grandeur of France**; known for his economic prosperity, rejuvenation of Paris, and support of Italian unification; **defeated in Franco-Prussian War**.

These were some pretty cool dudes too…(cultural/intellectual) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">scientific field of evolutions and less scientific ideas such as Social Darwinism. Georges Haussmann <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">- 1809-1891; **c** ** hief architect of the redesigned Paris under Napoleon III. ** Established the system of grand avenues, strived to “modernize” Paris, with a cleaner, neater city.
 * Charles Darwin **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">- 1809-1882; scientist, biologist. Sparked by a visit to the Galapagos Islands on the HMS Beagle, Darwin published //On the Origin of Species// By Means of Natural Selection in 1859. ** Darwin's ideas dramatically affected societal self-conception, challenging the uniqueness of man and the relation of man to God **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">, spurring the development of the
 * ECONOMIC ALERT! Karl Marx **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 17px;"> - 1818-1883; German political philosopher and founder of ** scientific socialism **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 17px;">; published the ** Communist Manifesto **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 17px;"> in 1848 and Das Kapital in

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 17px;"> 1867.

And before you go, **don’t forget these**! (They’re kinda important!)* *The “kinda”part is //sarcastic//

<span style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;"> ** Frankfurt Assembly ** - May 1848-June 1849. German national parliament that tried and failed to create a united German state during the 1848 revolutions. First meeting in May 1848, the convention was populated by middle class civil servants, lawyers, and intellectuals dedicated to liberal reform. However, after drawing the boundaries for a German state and offering the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm, the Kaiser refused in March 1849, dooming hopes for a united, liberal Germany, and the Frankfurt assembly dissolved soon after. Peace of Paris - 1856; ended the Crimean War; Russia relinquished its claim as the protector of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire and the Black Sea was neutralized among all powers; solidified a complete defeat for Russia. ** Serfdom  ** - An institution in Russia and many eastern European states in which **peasants were legally tied to the land** that they farmed and could not leave that land without expressed permission from the baron or landowner; created an immobile peasantry and a form of slavery; ended with the Emancipation of 1861.
 * Plebiscites ** - Popular votes on one question or issue on the ballot; Camillo di Cavour used these to legitimize Sardinia's role as the central nation in unification as he arranged these votes in every province to be annexed by Sardinia into the Italian state.
 * Realpolitik ** - The notion that politics must be conducted in terms of the **realistic assessment of power and the self-interest of individual nation-states**, and the pursuit of those interests by any means, often ruthless and violent ones; used skillfully by Camillo di Cavour and Otto von Bismarck in their policies toward national unification.
 * Risorgimento ** - Literally, "resurgence"; the name given to the **movement for Italian unification** because the movement hoped to bring Italy back to its [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Nationalversammlung.jpg/250px-Nationalversammlung.jpg width="324" height="239" align="right" caption="Frankfurt Assembly"]] former ancient glory through unification into one political entity; succeeded with proclamation of Italian state in 1861, finally completed with annexation of Rome in 1870.
 * Emancipation of the serfs ** - 1861; by the Emancipation Edict offered by Alexander II; **ended the institution of serfdom in Russia after centuries of its use**; most probably done because the government needed an effective pool of men from which it could conscript thousands into the army; after the defeat in the Crimean War, this was one of the efforts taken to strengthen the weak Russian military.
 * Great Reforms ** - **Tsar Alexander II's changes that he directed from above**; changes in education, the judiciary, the military, expression rights, etcetera all seemed to follow an enlightened, liberal perspective; however, upon careful review of these reforms, it is obvious that these were grudging reforms with little real change.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**TIMELINE 1849-1871**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Ø ** political/military ** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Ø ** social/economic ** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Ø ** cultural/intellectual **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**April 1849: King Frederick William IV of Prussia rejects Frankfurt Assembly’s constitution and offer of hereditary rule in a federal German state; Frankfurt Assembly colla **

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">** pses .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1852: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte becomes “Emperor Napoleon III” and establishes Second French Empire .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1853: American Commodore Perry arrives in Yedo (Tokyo) Bay, “opening” Japan to foreign commercial exchanges .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1853-1870: Baron Haussmann supervises modern rebuilding of Paris .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1854-1856: France and Britain join with Turkey to defeat Russia in the Crimean War .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1857: Gustave Flaubert publishes //Madame Bovary// .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1861: Italians establish the unified Kingdom of Italy .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1861: Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in Russia .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1861-1865: Civil War in the United States; federal union is upheld and slavery is abolished .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1867: Creation of independent Dominion of Canada .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1868: New Japanese emperor Mutsuhito begins the Meiji era; Japan enters process of rapid economic and political change .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1870: Prussia defeats France in brief war; Napoleon III abdicates and Parisians proclaim a Third French Republic .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1871: King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes emperor in newly established German Empire .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1850-1940: About 60 million people migrate from Europe .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1869: Opening of Suez Canal in Egypt facilitates global trade .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1870’s: Western Europe and United States adopt the “gold standard” for global currency exchanges .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1871: The revolutionary Paris Commune is violently suppressed in France .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1859: Charles Darwin publishes //Origin of Species//; “evolution” becomes a key theme in modern intellectual life .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1856: Ottoman Empire launches reforms to modernize the legal and military system .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1857: “Indian Mutiny” threatens British control of India and leads to reforms in the imperial administration .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1864: Napoleon III of France installs Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico .** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**1867: Maximilian is overthrown; Benito Juarez returns as Mexican President .**



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